Patterns in binding energy of isotopes

 NIST data - "Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions with Relative Atomic Masses" which may be obtained by selecting the options "All Elements" and "All isotopes" - contains many patterns, some of which are more difficult to find than others. 

The following examples may reflect distinct multiples of available energy bands - analogous to the series of emission spectrum known as the Balmer series discovered for hydrogen atoms - and that were eventually explained, firstly with Bohr's model of discrete electron shells of atoms.

The Global Tech Council and Pattern Recognition

Analysis of some of the data made available by NIST

Isotope

---

Sn

---

Sn

Z

---

50

---

50

N

---

77

---

76

A

---

127

---

126

Relative Atomic Mass

---

126.910 390(11)

---

125.907 659(11)

---

Difference in relative atomic mass

---

1.002 731

---

Sn

---

Sn

---

50

---

50

---

59

---

58

---

109

---

108

---

108.911 2921(85)

---

107.911 8943(58)

---

Difference in relative atomic mass

---

0.999 3978

---

Difference between the above differences in relative atomic mass

---

0.003 3332

---

Sb

---

Sb

---

51

---

51

---

79

---

78

---

130

---

129

---

129.911 662(15)

---

128.909 147(23)

---

Difference in relative atomic mass

---

1.002 515

---

Sb

---

Sb

---

51

---

51

---

61

---

60

---

112

---

111

---

111.912 400(19)

---

110.913 2182(95)

---

Difference in relative atomic mass

---

0.999 1818

---

Difference between the above differences in relative atomic mass

---

0.003 3332

Repeating the above calculations for the two pairs of differences in relative atomic masses of Yttrium-98 and Yttrium-99, and of Yttrium-80 and Yttrium-81 shows the difference between those differences is 0.0066664 which is two times the figure from the calculcation above.

Repeating the above calculations for the two pairs of differences in relative atomic masses of Erbium-167 and Erbium-168, and of Holmium-165 and Holmium-165 shows the difference between those differences is 0.0016666 which is one-half the figure from the calculcation above:

Isotope

---

Er

---

Er

Z

---

68

---

68

N

---

99

---

98

A

---

167

---

166

Relative Atomic Mass

---

166.932 0546(22)

---

165.930 2995(22)

---

Difference in relative atomic mass

---

1.001 7551

---

Ho

---

Ho

---

67

---

67

---

98

---

97

---

165

---

164

---

164.930 3288(21)

---

163.930 2403(25)

---

Difference in relative atomic mass

---

1.000 0885

---

Difference between the above differences in relative atomic mass

---

0.001 6666

Mathematics puzzles in modelling technology for energy

Suppose you need to calculate the amount of carbon in coal for someone who was pondering creating hydrogen from it. 

One way is as follows: 

1. Find out how much CO₂ a coal-fired power station emits for each megawatt-hour of electricity it sends out. 

2. Find out how many tonnes of coal the same coal-fired power station burns for each megawatt-hour of electricity it sends out. 

3. From the above pieces of information, calculate how much CO₂ is produced from each tonne of coal the power station burns. 

4. Calculate the amount of carbon in the CO₂ that is produced from each tonne of coal that is burned. 

The Australian Government's National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting site provides a sample of some of the information -

Australian Government's National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting
Yallourn Power Station

Energy Australia provided the corresponding information for coal consumption Yallourn Power Station on its web site a few years ago. This is a sample retrieved from the WayBack Machine - 

Coal consumption at Yallourn coal-fired power plant

 

The above information is sufficient for the calculations suggested above - 

1. CO₂ per MWh : 1.34 tonnes.

2. Coal per MWh : (1,480 MWh from burning 2,400 tonnes of coal) => 1.62 tonnes per MWh. 

3. The amount of CO₂ for each tonne of coal? 

1.34 tonnes of CO₂ are produced from burning 1.62 tonnes of brown coal. 

So burning 1 tonne of coal produces 0.83 tonnes of carbon dioxide.

4. The formula weight of carbon dioxide shows that 44 grams of carbon dioxide is made of 12 grams of carbon and 32 grams of oxygen. In other words the amount of carbon in carbon dioxide is (12/44) times the mass of the carbon dioxide.

So the carbon in 0.83 tonnes of carbon dioxide is 0.225 tonnes. (= 0.83 tonnes x (12 / 44).)

0.225 tonnes is 225 kgs of carbon in each tonne of brown coal burned at Yallourn Power Station. 

This should not be a controversial or surprising answer. 

The calculations to estimate that there are 225 tonnes of carbon using publicly available information about Victorian brown coal are not terribly complex. 

These following calculations are surprising:

1. In a 2019 report "Evaluation of options for production of low-cost CO₂ - free hydrogen from Victorian brown coal" the details for option 4: "Brown coal gasification plant using oxygen blown entrained flow gasifier followed by shift reactor for H2 production " given on page 35 are listed in the table below. 

The two lines of special interest are the ones showing -

• Wet coal of 893 tonnes per hour and 
• Total CO₂ generation of 518 tonnes per hour. 

A few calculations show that each tonne of coal in this modelling exercise is assumed to produce 0.58 tonnes of carbon dioxide, and

This means that the coal for the purpose of this model have only 160 kgs of carbon in each tonne. 

Target production of H₂

Wet coal requirement

Dry coal

Excess char to refinery

Tar production

Total CO₂ generation

CO₂ capture efficiency

Steam requirement 

32.1 tons/hour

893 tons/hour

332 tons/hour

Nil

Nil

518 tons/hour

88%

344 tons/hour

If the calculation of carbon coal burned by the Yallourn power station - 225 kgs per tonne - is correct, then the carbon in 427 tonnes of wet brown coal is sufficient to produce 32 tonnes of hydrogen by reaction with steam. 

This is less than half of the 893 tonnes of wet brown coal the 2019 modelling exercise found to be needed. 

2. The web site for the Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain pilot project says that it is to use 150 tonnes of brown coal to produce 3 tonnes of hydrogen. 

This is an even greater amount of coal per tonne of hydrogen than the 2019 modelling reported. 

The Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain project also estimated that it would produce 100 tonnes of carbon dioxide in producing the hydrogen. This is about double the rate of carbon dioxide produced per tonne of hydrogen that the 2019 modelling reported. 

That estimate has since been greatly increased to around 140 tonnes.

The assumptions and calculations in these two examples - the 2019 report, and the Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain project - cannot be reconciled with the information available about the use of coal by the Yallourn Power Station.

The shape of the cosmos

Serrendipity in viewing the following three videos on YouTube in this sequence conjures an unlikely but curiously intriguing thought...

1. The 1995 Hubble photo that changed astronomy

2. Why does light slow down in water?

3. A Miraculous Proof (Ptolemy's Theorem) - Numberphile

The first video shows images of the early universe as it existed over 14 billion years ago.

Hubble image of the Big Bang

The second video provides a possible explanation for why the light from 14 billion years ago is only now arriving at the Hubble Space Telescope... namely that the light may have travelled quite slowly through the material existing in the early universe (just as it travels more slowly through water) while the outer parts of the expanding universe zipped off at a faster pace.

The third video gives a perplexing suggestion for the Hubble Space Telescope seeing the early universe no matter which direction it is pointing.

If the Hubble Space Telescope pointing in one direction viewed the early universe as a small bubble, then it might have been that when pointed in the opposite direction it would view the outer edges of the universe that had travelled ahead of the Milky Way galaxy as the universe expanded.

Curiously the Hubble Space Telescope viewed the earliest components of the universe no matter which direction it pointed.

The third video describes a process for creating one specific isomorphism of a geometrical structure.

"Reflection" - one type of transformation - "it will keep his elephant-ness"

"our inversion is a completely different animal"

• Points on the transform circle go to themselves. Points outside the circle go to points inside the circle. 
• Lines through the centre of the transform circle go to themselves. Lines not through the centre become circles through the centre.

  

  Lines through the centre go to themselves

• Circles inside the transform circle but not through the centre go to circles that are outside the transform circle. 

The latter mapping for circles inside the transform circle -in particular for those that are increasingly near to the centre- go to ever more distant circles outside the transform circle.

This is a description that uncanningly matches Hubble Space Telescope's images of the early universe.

Instead of seeing a miniature bubble in only one direction that represents the early universe, what the Hubble Space Telescope sees is a vast uniformly distant bubble that light has travelled for 14 billion years from all directions to reach it.

Perhaps the Hubble Space Telescope's image is of Aladdin's Shoe.
The view containing the Elephant has been subjected to an abstract mathematical transformation?